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Peelupaaka Vaada. (Chemical Theory)
Peelu means an atom. (Paramaanu). Two atoms combine together to form a “Dvyanuka”. Three “Dvyanukaas” combine together and form “Tryanuka”. Four ‘Tryanukaas’ combine to form “Chaturanuka”. Since the atoms are mathematically the smallest entities, they have no sides. When one atom joins the other, they become one gain, and thus they enlarge, and become “Tryanukaas, Chaturanukaas,” Panchanukaas, etc. The whole world consisting of buildings, trees, mountains, stars, and everything else, is formed by different combinations of these atomic bodies. The differentiation in the colour and consistency, roughness or smoothness etc, of different substances like pots and cloths is due to what is called “Paakabheda”- difference in chemical combination. For example, according to the Vaiseshika system, when a pot is baked, changes take place in its constitution just as they take place when cooking food. When these changes take place by the conjunction of fire, the substances which form the clay are reduced down to their “Dvyanuka” stage. Then the “Dvyanuka” stage is also destroyed. The atoms constituting the “Dvyanuka” separate and recombine into a “Dvyanuka” possessing different properties such as colour, touch etc., It takes nine moment for the consummation of the whole change. In the first moment, the “Dvyanuka” is destroyed. In the second moment, the original black colour is destroyed. In the third moment, the new red or other colour is generated by the contract with heat. In the fourth moment, by virtue of some unknown force from the conjunction of a soul possessing merit (i.e.) from a kind of initiative tendency in the atom for the production of a new substance is started. In the fifth moment, the atom separates itself from its old status (i.e.) from its former place. In the sixth moment, it cuts itself off. In the seventh moment, it combines with another atom. In the eighth moment, the two atoms combine and become “Dvyanuka again”. In the ninth moment, the properties, such as colour which exist in the atom appear in the new “Dvyanuka”. Thus, in these nine moments the dark and unbaked clay pot is converted into the red and baked pot. This transformation is caused by what is called “Peelupaaka”- chemical change in the atoms of the original substance. This is recording to Vaiseshika doctrine.
Thus the Vaiseshikas hold that when a jar is baked, the old black jar is destroyed, its several compounds of two atoms, & c… being destroyed; the action of the fire then produces the red colour in the separate atoms, and joining these into new compounds, eventually produces a new red jar. The exceeding rapidity of the steps prevents the eye’s detecting the change of the jars. The followers of the Nyaaya maintain that the fire penetrates into the different compounds of two or more atoms, and produces its effects on these compounds, and thereby changes not the jar but its colour etc. The jar is still the same jar, only, it is red but not black.
Pittharapaaka. (Physical change)
According to the Nyaaya system, it is considered that the transformation of one substance into another takes place by a physical change in the molecules. The pot when it is baked, changes its colour and other qualities without giving up its molecular structure. Pitthara means a pot. Since it is considered that the changes take place in the pot itself and not in the atoms, this theory is called ‘Pittharapaaka Vaada’. The pot is the same as the one that is baked. It did not lose its identity. The different constituents or Pittharaas need not undergo destruction, but they undergo a transformation. A Pitthara (molecule) consists of two or more atoms. There are numerous pittharaas (or molecules) in the pot. Since everyone of the particles, which constitute the pot, is black, the pot appears to be black in the beginning. These particles change their colour when baked into red. And there are also other changes like roughness in their properties. The Nyaaya system says that whatever changes are said to take place according to Vaiseshika theory take place in the molecule only and that there is no need for the destruction of the molecules into their Atomic constitution. Both in the first and the second arrangement, the atoms are the same but they have only changed their chemical or physical character.
Take lime stone, coral and pearl – all these three yield lime, (calcium oxide) when burnt. But their medicinal and biochemical properties on living bodies are different. The pearl lime is known to be cooling whereas shell lime is known to be heating, caustic, and comparatively destructive to the living tissues. Charcoal, graphite and diamond are all made up of carbon. But they have different properties. It was recently demonstrated that particles of charcoal when mixed with molten iron and suddenly cooled to a very low – temperature, become changed into particles of diamond by a change in their molecular structure.
It is said in the Vedas, that the whole universe is produced by the “Paaka” (chemical changes) caused by the rays of the sun.
“Sooryo mareechi maathalle Sarvasmaath bhuvaana thathi, Tasyaah paaka Viasehena”. The purgative and other properties of croton on other drugs are of the atoms (peelus), contained in them.
This theory of the Nyaya Vaiseshika of the causation of the universe is called the Theory of Atomic Agglomeration in contrast with parinaama vaada – the Theory of Evolution and Vivartha – Vaada-the Theory of illusion of the other Darsanaas. (see Saankhya and Advaita).
Influence of Kaala
Kaala (time) is an entity that has to be taken into consideration when dealing with chemical or physical changes. Take for instance a raw mango. It may be ripened into a fruit either slowly or quickly according to the rapidity of Paaka or Bio-chemical changes that take place during the transformation of the raw fruit into a ripe one.
1. You may envelop the fruit in a heap of hay, thereby giving it the heat necessary for it’s ripening slowly and also to exclude to a certain extent the cold air, which retards the ripening.
2. You may place the fruit in the hot sun till it gets ripened.
3. You may keep the fruit in the hearth or a hot air chamber. Although the fruit gets ripe, by all the three processes the taste, colour and the other qualities differ to a great extent. This is due mainly to the time that is allowed for the chemical changes under the three different conditions. Enveloped in hay the fruit takes its own time and a good taste and colour develop in it. Expose it to hot sun the fruit ripens quicker but the qualities are different.
Expose it to the direct heat in the hearth, it may ripen very much quicker and has again different properties. In all these three conditions the main factor affecting the Paaka-chemical or Bio-chemical changes is time-Kaala. Thus the Hindu scientists considered Kaala one of the most important factors in those changes.
D I K
Dik is inferred from the relation of priority or Sub-sequence other than that of time. It is deduced from our motions of here and there. It is marked by our association with the four directions of East, West, North, and South- which again depend on the relation of the Earth’s movement round the Sun. East is the direction which is towards sunrise-West towards Sunset – North and South are towards North and South poles respectively. We may count the directions as four or six if we take upper and lower as two directions. But Dik or space is one, Vibhu, all pervading and eternal.
Praachyaadi Vyawahaara Heeturdik
Saa Chaikaa Vibhvee Nityacka (Tarka Sangraha)
Dik or the position of atoms in space is also to be considered when their combinations and disintegrations take place – For example – nearness of substances to each other or distance each from other makes a great difference in chemical combinations of different substances.
The relative importance of the position of the atoms in space and the influence of direction (North or South pole etc.) on them have also to be taken into account in addition to heat and time.
Thus ‘Heat’ (Tejas) Kaala (time) and Dik (space) are therefore rightly included in Dravyas (substances) because they possess certain Gunas (qualities).
(3) KARMA
3. Karma – (Action) is the third category. It is divided into five kinds – (1) Utkshepanam-upward movement, (3) Aakunchanam-contraction (4) Prasaaranam-dilatation (5) Gamanagamanam – motion in general.
(4) SAMAANYA
Samaanya-The fourth category Samaanya (Community), is the source of our motion of genus. It usually devotees quality common to many objects. This is also called Jaati. Samaanya is of two kinds, (1) the higher or genus (Para) and (2) lower or species ( Apara).
(5) VISESHA
Visesha – (Particularity) denotes single or simple objects devoid of community. These are Soul, Time, Place and Aakaasa, and also Atoms in their ultimate form. This Visesha is the distinguishing feature of the Vaiseshika Philosophy. Its theory and doctrine is that all substances are composed of countless minute invisible atoms, from the combinations of which all forms of substances, physical and mental, arise and from the operation of which all phenomena take place. These combinations of the ultimate atoms are merely temporary and are subject to change destruction and alteration, so far as the combinations are concerned, but the individual atoms, of course, can neither be destroyed nor changed not altered in their nature.
These atoms of Kanaada are similar to the corpuscles, Ions or Electrons of the modern western science
(6) SAMAVAAYA
6. Samavaaya – The sixth category or Padaardha of Vaiseshika is Samavaaya – (Co-inherence or inseparable connection). It denotes the connection of things that in their nature must be connected as long as they exist, as the yarn and the cloth, of which it is made. This inseparable union of Kanaada is rather of an abstract nature. Examples of Samavaaya are the parts and the whole, the quality and the object which possesses the quality, action and the agent, atoms and substance, subject and object etc – (Vaiseshika sut. Ch. 1-11). In all these instances there is an inseparable connection between the members of each pair.
(7) ABHAAVA
Abhaava – A seventh Padaardha called Abhaava (Negation or non-existence) was added by later Vaiseshikas. The six categories mentioned above are ‘Bhaavas’ (existing ideas) and the seventh is the negation of all these six. If you have no ‘Abhava’, you cannot get the knowledge of that which is not a thing. Example:- the knowledge that there is no pot.
Abhava is divided into two kinds:-
Samsargaabhaava and Anyonyaabhaava,
Samsargaabhaava is again of three kinds:-
Praagabhaava – (Negation which has no beginning but has an end).
Pradhvamsaabhaava – (Negation with a beginning but no end) and
Atyantaabhaava- absolute negation.
(1) Praagabhaava is the negation of a thing antecedent to origination (i.e.,) before it existed. The negation of a pot before the pot is made. The negation ceases to exist as soon as the pot is made. It is therefore said to be without a beginning and with an end.
(2) Pradhvamsaabhaava- The negation of a thing after the thing is destroyed. The absence of a pot when the pot is broken. The negation is represented by the pieces of the broken pot. Pradhvamsaabhaava is negation subsequent to origination of a thing. It has a beginning but with no end. It begins as soon as the pot is broken and there is no end of this Abhaava.
(3) Atyantaabhaava – (Absolute negation) means negation always. Example:- The son of a barren woman, the horns of the hare. These things never existed and never shall exist. This is without beginning and without end.
The above three Abhaavas are included in Samsargaabhaava.
II. Anyonyaabhaaya- (Negation of identity) is only of one kind. In two things that exist one of these things does not exist in the other. In pot (Ghata), there is no existence of cloth (Pata) and vice versa.
Scope of Vaiseshika Darsana
The scope of the Vaiseshika Darsana is the acquisition of correct knowledge of the reality of pain and its removal; “Charama Dukha Dhwamsa Lakshano Mokshah Jaayati”. (Tarka Sangraha Deepika in Telugu P. 137)
Pain may be du to internal causes or external causes. Some kinds of pain may be removed by the Vaidya temporarily or even permanently but the pain caused by fear of death can be removed only by correct knowledge of the Supreme Being.
Whoever wishes to escape from the reality of pain and whoever wishes to know the means of such escape – should learn that the knowledge of the Supreme Being is the true means of such escape. We have the authority of the Vedas for this statement. Swetaaswatara Upanishad VI-20 says:-
“When men shall roll up the sky a piece of leather”
“Then shall there be an end of pain, without the knowledge of Siva” (Deva).
“Yadaa Charmavan Aakaasam Veshtayishyanti Maanavaah Tadaa Sivam (Devam) Avijnaaya dukkhasyaante bhavishayati ”.
That means that without the knowledge of God, destruction of pain is not possible. Knowledge of God is obtained by Sravana, Manana, and Bhaavana-bearing, thought and reflection of God. True Vaiseshika Siddhaanta is that Dukkha (pain) will be removed by correct knowledge of the six Padaardhaas (Categories).
Thought (Manana) depends upon inference (Anumaana), inference depends upon Vyaapti (Universal proposition) and the knowledge of Vyaapti depends upon the right understanding of the six Padaardhas (Categories). Hence the saint Kanaada establishes the six categories in his tenfold treatise called Vaiseshika Sutras. Kanaada is also called by another synonym ‘Kanabhaksha’ – which means one who feeds on Kanaas or atoms.
According to the Vaiseshika, all objective knowledge consists in the perception of things in their three categories i.e., Dravya, Guna or Karma. Of the three others categories Saamaanya abides in Dravya, Guna and Karma. Saamaanya is of two kinds 1. The Higher of Genus and 2. The Lower or species, Visesha abides in the nine eternal substances, (Dravyas). The sixth category is coherence by which the parts of certain inseparable things are held together in their respective places, as quality and the object qualified (Guna – Gani)
Saamaanya or community has been defined as the source of our notion of genus (Jaati). Saamaanya usually denotes qualities common to many objects and in its highest degree, it expresses only existence (Satta), a property common to all Bhavaas.
Category is a term employed in the science of Logic and is defined as one of the highest classes to which the objects of knowledge or thought can be reduced and by which they can be arranged in a system; an ultimate conception. The term implies something absolute in nature, and not hypothetical or relative or admitting of exception: something final. Aristotle made ten categories viz. 1. Substance (Dravya) 2. Quantity (Parimaana). 3. Quality (Guna), 4. Relation (a kind of Samavanya), 5. Action (Karma). 6. Passion (a guna of the mind), 7. Time (Kaala), 8. Place (Dik), 9. Situation (Sthiti – a condition of the mind or place) 10. Habit (Saatmyata).
This school of philosophers distributed all the objects of our thoughts and ideas into the above genera or classes whereas Kanaada divided them into six categories viz., Dravya, Guna, Karma, Saamaanya, Visesha, and Samavaaya and distributed everything in the world into these six groups.
Saamaanya enables different things to be denoted by one name. Saamaanya meka tvakaram (Cha. Sut. 1-45). Saamaanya is that (dharma) which makes many things into one. Saamaanya is always responsible for increase of the bhaavas concerned whereas Visesha is responsible for decrease of the same. In a case where Saamaanya and visesha bhavas (they may be Dravyas, Gunas, or Karmas) come together in exactly equal proportions, there is neither increase nor decrease. This is called the restoration of Pravritti or equilibrium. (Pravritti rubhayasya. Cha. 1.44. Ibid)
For example, when we see a number of cows, each individual cow is denoted by the word cow. Bu when we are dealing with a number of cows and a number of other animals, having distinguishing properties from the cows, we recognize the Gotwa (cowness) and speak of the class of cows as bovine. Similarly when we see a number of horses, we recognize the Aswatwa (Horseness) i.e. the Dharma or properties common to all horses and classify them into the Equine class. But when we have to group the cows and horses together, we denote the greater group by the Animal class of Jantutwa and animalness in their common dharma. In this manner the grouping may go on by classifying all Bhaavas (Dravyas, Gunas, and Karmas) into larger or smaller groups or orders, genuses and species according to their common dharmas (individual peculiarities or factors). The larger grouping is denoted by Para Saamaanya and the smaller grouping by Apara Samaanya. The largest grouping of all Dravyas, Gunas, and Karmas ends in only one group denoted by the word Satta i.e. existence. Saamaanya is thus classified into two kinds viz. Para Saamaanya and Apara Saamaanya. Para signifies distant or greater groups and Apara nearer or smaller groups. Whereas Saamaanya is responsible for increase of the number of the constituents of each group, Visesha is responsible for decrease in the number of the constituent parts.
“Saamaanyam Vriddhi Kaaranam,
Hrasahetutur Viseshascha.
Pravritti rubhayasyatu” (Sc. 1-44, Ibid).
The above hypothesis of things increasing by addition of similar things and decreasing by the addition of dissimilar things and of the restoration of equilibrium by the union of similar and dissimilar things in exact proportions is one of the fundamental hypotheses on which the science of Ayurveda is based.
According to Vaiseshikas, Dravyatwa (Substantiality) is eternal, although the Dravyas (substances) themselves are some of them eternal (like Aakaasa) and some of them are transitory (like lotus). Dravyatwa (jaati) exists in intimate (Samavaaya) relation with the eternal Aakaasa, as well as with the transitory relation with the eternal Aakaasa, as well as with the transitory lotus but Dravyatwa does not exist in intimate relation with gandha (smell) because gandha is a guna (quality) and not a dravya. Dravya and guna have however intimate (Samavaaya) relation between themselves as Guni-Guna. Again Gunatwa is the Saamaanya Dharma of Guna and Karmatwa is the Saamaanya Dharma of Karma, Satta (existence) is the Saamaanya Dharma of all the three namely, Dravya, Guna and Karma. But as the Karmas are all transitory, Karmatwa is only found in the Anitya (transitory) state. Dravyatwa and Gunatwa are Nitya. We have already said that Saamaanya is of two kinds viz. Para is higher grouping and Apara, lower grouping. Para Saamaanya may be composed of Dravya and Guna or Guna and Karma or all together. Apara Saamaanya is composed of comparatively smaller groups. Grouping and regrouping of Dravyas, Gunas and Karmas in higher or lower orders and species are all included in this Para and Apara classifications.
Visesha or particularly denotes single or simple objects devoid of community. These simple objects are 1. Soul and 2. Mind, 3. Time, 4. Space, 5. Aakaasa and 6-9 the Atoms of the other four Bhootas – Pridhvi. Aap., Tejas and Vaayu in their ultimate forms.
Viseshaas are Ananta (innumerable). They are indivisible because they are countless and infinite. Viseshaas being single, they have no genus, Take the Soul, ether, time and space, They are Vibha, (i.e.,) infinite, Take the Atom ** or the atoms of the four remaining Dravyas, Prithvi, Ap, Tejas, and Vaayu. They are also indivisible because they are supposed to be Ne plus ultra-there is nothing further. They have reached the utter-most point and as they have no parts, they are what they are by their own indivisible nature. (Ballantyne translated) visesha as the ultimate difference.
The sixth category samavaaya is co-inherence or inseparable connection of things that in their nature must be connected as long as they exist. Samavaaya has no intimate relation (samavaayatva) with itself i.e. it is not possible to group samavaayas together into a group or community as we do with Dravyaas, Gunaas or Karmas. Samavaaya is different from Samyoga. Samyoga or conjunction of things, being a guna has gunatwa. Samavaaya belongs to the 6th category and Samyoga belongs to the 2nd category, viz., Guna, (see above).
Samavaaya Sambandita abltaavat,
Samavaayo na Jaatih
Both Samavaaya and Visesha are indivisible. Samavaaya is always one and is therefore indivisible whereas Visesha is Ananta (infinite) and is therefore indivisible.
One must be able to use off-hand the intricate knowledge of the six words (Padaardhas) any where and at any time. These words are throughout Aayurveda used as the fundamental means of knowledge. Whatever other descriptions are found any where, without the use of these words, they are only elaborations of these six basic ideas.
Sarvadarsana Sangrah. English. P. 148.
The extracts given below are taken from the Cultural Heritage of India Vol. I. We acknowledge our gratitude to the publishers.
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